Unit 1: Chapter 2 [Sports Journalism]

Unit I: [Sports Journalism]

2. Role and functions of International Sports Organizations: FIFA, ICC, IOC, International Paralympic Committee, Commonwealth Games Federation, Asian Games Federation, National Games

 

Sports Organisation:

·         Definition-

·         “A sports organization is a social entity involved in the sport industry; it is goal-directed with a consciously structured activity system and a relatively identifiable boundary.”

Types of sports organisations

·         Sports governing bodies

·         Those administering and regulating sports, focusing on its development at all levels and guaranteeing both the rules of the game and the competition.

·         Mission- Promote sports at all levels in a given territory and sport discipline.

·         Goal- Govern the sport, ensuring its promotion and development at all levels, monitor the administration of sport, guarantee the organization of regular competitions as well as the respect for the rules of the play.

·         Main activity- Govern one or more sport discipline.

·         Examples- National Associations, Federations, Olympic committees.

·         Sports providing entities

·         Producing and delivering recreational or competitive sports programs at a local or community level.

·         Mission- To satisfy a community’s motivation to practice physical activity and socializing through sports activities.

·         Goal- Design and offer sport activities, both at a recreational and competitive level, and at individual and team programs, oriented towards official competitions in order to achieve sporting success and social integration.

·         Main activity- Deliver sports programs.

·         Examples- Clubs, community centres, fitness centres, university sports programs.

·         Sports spectacle organisations

·         Responsible for the production of a competition system aimed to satisfy and articulate the need of professional sports.

·         Mission- Represent, promote and safeguard the interests of all actors participating in the competitions they produce.

·         Goal- Design a regular competition system ensuring the contest among rival teams or individuals in a given sport discipline and under the same ethic codes.

·         Main activity- Generate competition opportunities.

·         Examples- Leagues, associations, circuits, tours.

FIFA

·         The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA /ˈfiːfə/; French for "International Federation of Association Football") is an association which describes itself as an international governing body of association football, futsal, and beach soccer.

·         Responsible for the organization of football's major international tournaments, notably the World Cup which commenced in 1930 and the Women's World Cup which commenced in 1991.

·         FIFA was founded in 1904 to oversee international competition among the national associations of Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland. Headquartered in Zürich, its membership now comprises 211 national associations.

·         Although FIFA does not control the rules of football (that being the responsibility of the International Football Association Board), it is responsible for both the organization of a number of tournaments and their promotion, which generate revenue from sponsorship.

·         The first president of FIFA was Robert Guérin. Guérin was replaced in 1906 by Daniel Burley Woolfall from England, by then a member of the association. The first tournament FIFA staged, the association football competition for the 1908 Olympics in London was more successful than its Olympic predecessors, despite the presence of professional footballers, contrary to the founding principles of FIFA.

STRUCTURE OF FIFA

·         FIFA is headquartered in Zürich, and is an association established under the Law of Switzerland.

·         FIFA's supreme body is the FIFA Congress, an assembly made up of representatives from each affiliated member association. Each national football association has one vote, regardless of its size or footballing strength. The Congress assembles in ordinary session once every year, and extraordinary sessions have been held once a year since 1998. The congress makes decisions relating to FIFA's governing statutes and their method of implementation and application.

·         Only the Congress can pass changes to FIFA's statutes. The congress approves the annual report, and decides on the acceptance of new national associations and holds elections. Congress elects the President of FIFA, its General Secretary, and the other members of the FIFA Council on the year following the FIFA World Cup.

·         FIFA's Executive Committee, chaired by the President, is the main decision-making body of the organisation in the intervals of Congress. The Executive Committee is composed of 25 people: the President, 8 Vice Presidents, and 15 members and one woman member. The Executive Committee is the body that decides which country will host the World Cup.

·         Gianni Infantino is the current president, elected on 26 February 2016 at the Extraordinary FIFA Congress.

ADMINISTRATIVE COST OF FIFA

·         FIFA publishes its results according to IFRS. The total compensation for the management committee in 2011 was 30 million for 35 people.

6 CONFEDERATIONS & 211 NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

·         Besides its worldwide institutions there are six confederations recognised by FIFA which oversee the game in the different continents and regions of the world. National associations, and not the continental confederations, are members of FIFA. The continental confederations are provided for in FIFA's statutes, and membership of a confederation is a prerequisite to FIFA membership.

·         Asian Football Confederation (AFC; 46 members) Australia has been a member of the AFC since 2006.

·         Confederation of African Football (CAF; 54 members)

·         Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football (CONCACAF; 35 members).

·         Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol (CONMEBOL; 10 members)

·         Oceania Football Confederation (OFC; 11 members)

·         Union of European Football Associations (UEFA; 55 members)

·         FIFA has more member states than the UN as FIFA recognises 23 non-sovereign entities as distinct nations, such as the four Home Nations within the United Kingdom and politically disputed territories such as Palestine.

·         The FIFA World Rankings are updated monthly and rank each team based on their performance in international competitions, qualifiers, and friendly matches. There is also a world ranking for women's football, updated four times a year.

GOVERNANCE GAME DEVELOPMENT

·         The laws that govern football, known officially as the Laws of the Game, are not solely the responsibility of FIFA; they are maintained by a body called the International Football Association Board (IFAB). FIFA has members on its board (four representatives); the other four are provided by the football associations of the United Kingdom: England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, who jointly established IFAB in 1882 and are recognised for the creation and history of the game. Changes to the Laws of the Game must be agreed by at least six of the eight delegates.

·         The FIFA Statutes form the overarching document guiding FIFA's governing system. The governing system is divided into separate bodies that have the appropriate powers to create a system of checks and balances. It consists of four general bodies: the congress, the executive committee, the general secretariat, and standing and ad-hoc committees.

DISCIPLINE OF NATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

·         FIFA frequently takes active roles in the running of the sport and developing the game around the world. One of its sanctions is to suspend teams and associated members from international competition when a government interferes in the running of FIFA's associate member organisations or if the associate is not functioning properly.

ICC

·         The International Cricket Council (ICC) is the international governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965, and took up its current name in 1989.

·         The ICC has 104 members: 12 Full Members that play Test matches and 92 Associate Members. The ICC is responsible for the organisation and governance of cricket's major international tournaments, most notably the Cricket World Cup. It also appoints the umpires and referees that officiate at all sanctioned Test matches, One Day International and Twenty20 Internationals.

·         It promulgates the ICC Code of Conduct, which sets professional standards of discipline for international cricket, and also co-ordinates action against corruption and match-fixing through its Anti-Corruption and Security Unit (ACSU).

·         The ICC does not control bilateral fixtures between member countries (which include all Test matches), it does not govern domestic cricket in member countries, and it does not make the laws of the game, which remain under the control of the Marylebone Cricket Club.

·         ICC CHAIRMAN – Mr. Shashank Manohar

·         ICC CEO- Dave Richardson

HISTORY

·         On 15 June 1909 representatives from England, Australia and South Africa met at Lord's and founded the Imperial Cricket Conference. Membership was confined to the governing bodies of cricket within the British Empire where Test cricket was played. West Indies, New Zealand and India were elected as Full Members in 1926, doubling the number of Test-playing nations to six.

·         After the formation of Pakistan in 1947, it was given Test status in 1952, becoming the seventh Test-playing nation. In May 1961 South Africa left the Commonwealth and therefore lost membership.

·         In 1965, ICC was renamed as the International Cricket Conference and new rules adopted to permit the election of countries from outside the Commonwealth. This led to the expansion of the Conference, with the admission of Associate Members. Associates were each entitled to one vote, while the Foundation and Full Members were entitled to two votes on ICC resolutions. Foundation Members retained a right of veto.

·         Sri Lanka was admitted as a Full Member in 1981, returning the number of Test-playing nations to seven. In 1989, new rules were adopted and the current name, the International Cricket Council came into existence. South Africa was re-elected as a Full Member of the ICC in 1991, after the end of apartheid; this was followed in 1992 by the admission of Zimbabwe as the ninth Test-playing nation. Then, in the year 2000 Bangladesh received test status. In 2017, Afghanistan Cricket Board and Cricket Ireland were been confirmed as Full Members of the International Cricket Council after a unanimous vote at the ICC Full Council meeting at The Oval.

LOCATION

·         From its formation the ICC had Lord's Cricket Ground as its home, and from 1993 had its offices in the "Clock Tower" building at the nursery end of the ground. The independent ICC was funded initially by commercial exploitation of the rights to the World Cup of One Day International cricket. As not all Member countries had double-tax agreements with the United Kingdom, it was necessary to protect cricket's revenues by creating a company, ICC Development (International) Pty Ltd – known as IDI, outside the UK. This was established in January 1994 and was based in Monaco.

·         Currently, the ICC headquarters are in Dubai.

RULES & REGULATIONS

·         The International Cricket Council oversees playing conditions, bowling reviews, and other ICC regulations. The ICC does not have copyright to the Laws of Cricket: only the MCC may change the Laws, though this is usually done in consultation with the game's global governing body. The ICC maintain a set of playing conditions for international cricket which make slight amendments to the Laws.

·          They also has a "Code of Conduct" to which teams and players in international matches are required to adhere. Where breaches of this code occur the ICC can apply sanctions, usually fines. In 2008, the ICC imposed 19 penalties on players.

INCOME GENERATION

·         The ICC generates income from the tournaments it organises, primarily the Cricket World Cup, and it distributes the majority of that income to its members. Sponsorship and television rights of the World Cup brought in over US$1.6 billion between 2007 and 2015, by far the ICC's main source of income.

·         The ICC has no income streams from the bilateral international cricket matches (Test matches, One Day International and Twenty20 Internationals), that account for the great majority of the international playing schedule, as they are owned and run by its members. It has sought to create other new events to augment its World Cup revenues. These include the ICC Champions Trophy and the ICC Super Series played in Australia in 2005. However these events have not been as successful as the ICC had hoped.

·         The ICC World Twenty20, first played in 2007, was a success. The ICC's current plan is to have an international tournament every year, with a Twenty20 World Cup played in even number years, the World Cup continuing to be held the year before the Olympic Games, and the ICC Champions Trophy in the remaining year of the cycle.

UMPIRES AND REFEREES

·         The ICC appoints international umpires and Match referees who officiate at all sanctioned Test matches, One-Day Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. The ICC operates 3 panels of umpires: namely the Elite Panel, the International Panel, and the Associates and Affiliates Panel.

·         As of April 2012, the Elite Panel includes twelve umpires. In theory, two umpires from the Elite Panel officiate at every Test match, while one Elite Panel umpire stands in ODI matches together with an umpire from the International Panel.

·         In practice, members of the International Panel stand in occasional Test matches, as this is viewed as a good opportunity to see whether they can cope at the Test level, and whether they should be elevated to the Elite Panel. The Elite Panel are full-time employees of the ICC, although do still, very occasionally umpire first-class cricket in their country of residence.

·         The International Panel is made up of officials nominated from each of the ten Test-playing cricket boards. The Panel Members officiate in ODI matches in their home country, and assist the Elite Panel at peak times in the cricket calendar when they can be appointed to overseas ODI and Test matches.

·         International Panel members also undertake overseas umpiring assignments such as the ICC Under 19 Cricket World Cup to improve their knowledge and understanding of overseas conditions, and help them prepare for possible promotion onto the Elite Panel.

·         There is also an Elite Panel of ICC Referees who act as the independent representative of the ICC at all Test and ODI matches. As of January 2009, it has 6 members, all highly experienced former international cricketers.

·         The Referees do not have the power to report players or officials (which has to be done by the umpires), but they are responsible for conducting hearings under the ICC Code of Conduct and imposing penalties as required at matches, ranging from an official reprimand to a lifetime ban from cricket. Decisions can be appealed, but the original decision is upheld in most cases.

MEMBERS

·         Full Members - the twelve governing bodies of teams that play official Test matches; The twelve full members are: Afghanistan, Australia, Bangladesh, England, India, Ireland, New Zealand, Pakistan, South Africa, Sri Lanka, West Indies, Zimbabwe

·         Associate Members - the 92 governing bodies in countries previously covered where cricket is firmly established and organised but have not yet been granted Full membership;

·         There were previously three classes of membership, but the ICC removed the Affiliate Membership in 2017, with all previous Affiliates becoming Associate Members.

ANTI-CORRUPTION & SECURITY

·         The ICC has also had to deal with drugs and bribery scandals involving top cricketers. Following the corruption scandals by cricketers connected with the legal and illegal bookmaking markets, the ICC set up an Anti-Corruption and Security Unit (ACSU) in 2000 under the retired Commissioner of the London Metropolitan Police, Lord Condon. Among the corruption on which they have reported was that of former South African captain Hansie Cronje who had accepted substantial sums of money from an Indian bookmaker for under-performing or ensuring that certain matches had a pre-determined result.

·         Similarly, the former Indian captain Mohammad Azharuddin and Ajay Jadeja were investigated, found guilty of match-fixing, and banned from playing cricket (for life and for five years, respectively).

·         The ACSU continues to monitor and investigate any reports of corruption in cricket and protocols have been introduced, which for example prohibit the use of mobile telephones in dressing rooms.

·         Following a scandal that occurred during the 2010 Pakistan tour of England, 3 Pakistani players, Mohammad Amir, Mohammad Asif and Salman Butt were found to be guilty of spot-fixing, and were banned for 5 years, 7 years and 10 years respectively. On 3 November 2011, jail terms were handed down of 30 months for Butt, one year for Asif, six months for Amir and two years eight months for Majeed, the sports agent that facilitated the bribes.

IOC

           INTRODUCTION

·         The International Olympic Committee (IOC; French: Comité International Olympique, CIO) is the supreme authority of the worldwide Olympic movement. Based in Lausanne, Switzerland, IOC is a non-profit independent international organisation made up of volunteers, which is committed to building a better world through sport.

·         It redistributes more than 90 percent of its income to the wider sporting movement, which means that every day the equivalent of US$ 3.4 million goes to help athletes and sports organisations at all levels around the world. Its mission is enshrined in the Olympic Charter: to support the development of competitive sport by ethical and environmentally sustainable means.

HISTORY

·         The IOC was created by Pierre de Coubertin, on 23 June 1894 with Demetrios Vikelas as its first president. As of June 2017, its membership consists of 95 active members, 41 honorary members, an honorary president (Jacques Rogge) and one honour member (Henry Kissinger). The IOC is the supreme authority of the worldwide modern Olympic movement.

·         The IOC organises the modern Olympic Games and Youth Olympic Games, held in summer and winter, every four years. The first Summer Olympics organised by the IOC was held in Athens, Greece, in 1896; the first Winter Olympics was in Chamonix, France, in 1924.

·         Until 1992, both Summer and Winter Olympics were held in the same year. After that year, however, the IOC shifted the Winter Olympics to the even years between Summer Games, to help space the planning of the two events from one another, and improve the financial balance of the IOC, which receives greater income on Olympic years. The first Summer Youth Olympics were in Singapore in 2010 and the first Winter Youth Olympics were held in Innsbruck in 2012.

·         In 2009, the UN General Assembly granted the IOC Permanent Observer status. This decision enables the IOC to be directly involved in the UN Agenda and to attend UN General Assembly meetings where it can take the floor. This has provided the possibility to promote sport at a new level.

·         In addition, in 1993, the UN General Assembly approved a Resolution that further solidified IOC–UN cooperation with the decision to revive the Olympic Truce, by adopting a Resolution entitled “Building a peaceful and better world through sport and the Olympic ideal,” which calls upon Member States to observe the Olympic Truce before every iteration of the games, and to cooperate with the IOC and the International Paralympic Committee in their efforts to use sport as a tool to promote peace, dialogue and reconciliation in areas of conflict during and beyond the period of the Olympic and Paralympic Games.

·         During each proclamation at the Olympics, announcers speak in different languages, French is always spoken first followed by an English translation and the dominant language of the host nation.

MISSION & RULES

·         The stated mission of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) is to promote Olympic throughout the world and to lead the Olympic Movement.

·         To encourage and support the organisation, development and coordination of sport and sports competitions.

·         To ensure the regular celebration of the Olympic Games;

·         To cooperate with the competent public or private organisations and authorities in the endeavour to place sport at the service of humanity and thereby to promote peace;

·         To act against any form of discrimination affecting the Olympic Movement;

·         To encourage and support the promotion of women in sport at all levels and in all structures with a view to implementing the principle of equality of men and women.

ORGANIZATION

·         The IOC Session is the general meeting of the members of the IOC, held once a year in which each member has one vote. It is the IOC’s supreme organ and its decisions are final.

·         Extraordinary Sessions may be convened by the President or upon the written request of at least one third of the members.

·         Among others, the powers of the Session are:

·         To adopt or amend the Olympic Charter.

·         To elect the members of the IOC, the Honorary President and the honorary members.

·         To elect the President, the Vice-Presidents and all other members of the IOC Executive Board.

·         To elect the host city of the Olympic Games.

HONOURS

·         In addition to the Olympic medals for competitors, the IOC awards a number of other honours:

·         The IOC President's Trophy is the highest sports award given to athletes who have excelled in their sport and had an extraordinary career and created a lasting impact on their sport.

·         The Pierre de Coubertin medal is awarded to athletes who demonstrate a special spirit of sportsmanship in Olympic events

·         The Olympic Cup is awarded to institutions or associations with a record of merit and integrity in actively developing the Olympic Movement

·         The Olympic Order is awarded to individuals for particularly distinguished contributions to the Olympic Movement, and superseded the Olympic Certificate.

·         The Olympic Laurel is awarded to individuals for promoting education, culture, development, and peace through sport.

IOC MEMBERS

·         For most of its existence, the IOC was controlled by members who were selected by other members. Countries that had hosted the Games were allowed two members. When named, they did not become the representatives of their respective countries to the IOC, but rather the opposite, IOC members in their respective countries.

CESSATION OF MEMBERSHIP

The membership of IOC members ceases in the following circumstances:

·         Resignation: any IOC member may cease their membership at any time by delivering a written resignation to the President.

·         Non re-election: any IOC member ceases to be a member without further formality if they are not re-elected.

·         Age limit: any IOC member ceases to be a member at the end of the calendar year during which they reach the age of 80.

·         Failure to attend Sessions or take active part in IOC work for two consecutive years.

·         Transfer of domicile or of main centre of interests to a country other than the country which was theirs at the time of their election.

·         Members elected as active athletes cease to be a member upon ceasing to be a member of the IOC Athletes' Commission.

·         Presidents and individuals holding an executive or senior leadership position within NOCs, world or continental associations of NOCs, IFs or associations of IFs, or other organisations recognised by the IOC cease to be a member upon ceasing to exercise the function they were exercising at the time of their election.

·         Expulsion: an IOC member may be expelled by decision of the Session if such member has betrayed their oath or if the Session considers that such member has neglected or knowingly jeopardised the interests of the IOC or acted in a way which is unworthy of the IOC.

REVENUE

·         The Olympic Movement generates revenue through five major programmes. The International Olympic Committee (IOC) manages broadcast partnerships and The Olympic Partner (TOP) worldwide sponsorship programme. The Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) manage domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing programmes within the host country under the direction of the IOC. The Olympic Movement generated a total of more than US$4 billion, €2.5 billion in revenue from 2001 to 2004.

REVENUE DISTRIBUTION

·         The IOC distributes some of Olympic marketing revenue to organisations throughout the Olympic Movement to support the staging of the Olympic Games and to promote the worldwide development of sport. The IOC retains approximately 10% of Olympic marketing revenue for the operational and administrative costs of governing the Olympic Movement.

ORGANISING COMMITTEE FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES (OCOGs)

·         The IOC provides The Olympic Partner (TOP) programme contributions and Olympic broadcast revenue to the OCOGs to support the staging of the Olympic Games and Olympic Winter Games:

·         TOP programme revenue to OCOGs; the two OCOGs of each Olympic quadrennium generally share approximately 50% of TOP programme revenue and value-in-kind contributions, with approximately 30% provided to the summer OCOG and 20% provided to the winter OCOG.

·         Broadcast revenue to OCOGs; the IOC contributes 49% of the Olympic broadcast revenue for each Games to the OCOG. During the 2001–2004 Olympic quadrennium, the Salt Lake 2002 Organizing Committee received US$443 million, €395 million in broadcast revenue from the IOC, and the Athens 2004 Organizing Committee received US$732 million, €690 million.

·         Domestic programme revenue to OCOGs; the OCOGs generate substantial revenue from the domestic marketing programmes that they manage within the host country, including domestic sponsorship, ticketing and licensing.

NATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEES (NOCs)

·         The NOCs receive financial support for the training and development of Olympic teams, Olympic athletes and Olympic hopefuls. The IOC distributes TOP programme revenue to each of the NOCs throughout the world. The IOC also contributes Olympic broadcast revenue to Olympic Solidarity, an IOC organisation that provides financial support to NOCs with the greatest need.

·         The continued success of the TOP programme and Olympic broadcast agreements has enabled the IOC to provide increased support for the NOCs with each Olympic quadrennium. The IOC provided approximately US$318.5 million to NOCs for the 2001–2004 quadrennium.

INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC SPORTS FEDERATIONS (IFs)

·         The IOC is now the largest single revenue source for the majority of IFs, with its contributions of Olympic broadcast revenue that assist the IFs in the development of their respective sports worldwide. The IOC provides financial support from Olympic broadcast revenue to the 28 IFs of Olympic summer sports and the seven IFs of Olympic winter sports after the completion of the Olympic Games and the Olympic Winter Games, respectively.

·         The continually increasing value of Olympic broadcast partnership has enabled the IOC to deliver substantially increased financial support to the IFs with each successive Games.

ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS

·         The International Olympic Committee (IOC) recognizes that the Olympic Games demand tremendous environmental resources, activities, and construction projects that could be detrimental to a host city’s environment.

·         In 1995, IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch stated, “the International Olympic Committee is resolved to ensure that the environment becomes the third dimension of the organization of the Olympic Games, the first and second being sport and culture.” Acting on this statement, in 1996 the IOC added the ‘environment’ as a third pillar to its vision for Olympic Games.

·         The IOC requires cities bidding to host the Olympics to provide a comprehensive strategy to protect the environment in preparation for hosting, and following the conclusion of the Games. This initiative was most notably acted upon in 2000, when the “Green Olympics” effort was developed by the Beijing Organizing Committee for the Beijing Olympic Games.

·         The Beijing 2008 Summer Olympics effort to host environmentally friendly games resulted in over 160 projects meeting the goal of “green” games through improved air quality and water quality, implementation of sustainable energy sources, improved waste management, and environmental education. 

INTERNATIONAL OLYMPIC COMMITTEE APPROACHES

The IOC has 4 major approaches to addressing environmental health concerns during the construction and competitions of the Olympic Games.

·         First, the IOC Sustainability and Legacy Commission focuses on how the IOC can improve the strategies and policies associated with environmental health throughout the process of cities hosting the Olympic Games.

·         Secondly, every candidate city must provide information to the IOC on environmental health issues like air quality and environmental impact assessments.

·         Thirdly, every host city is given the option to declare “pledges” to address specific or general environmental health concerns of hosting the Olympic Game.

·         Fourthly, the IOC has every host city collaborate with the United Nations to work towards addressing environmental health objectives. 

·         Ultimately, the IOC uses these four major approaches in an attempt to minimize the negative environmental health concerns of a host city.

INTERNATIONAL PARALYMPIC COMMITTEE

             INTRODUCTION

·         The International Paralympic Committee (IPC) is the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement. Its purpose is to organise the summer and winter Paralympic Games and act as the International Federation for ten sports, supervising and coordinating World Championships and other competitions.

·         Founded on 22 September 1989 as a non-profit organisation, it is based in Bonn, Germany and aims to develop sports opportunities for all people with an impairment from the beginner to elite level.

·         It employs more than 70 people from 20 countries and is composed of a General Assembly (highest decision making body), a Governing Board (executive body), a Management Team and various Standing Committees and Councils.

·         CEO- Xavier Gonzalez

HISTORY

·         Sport for athletes with an impairment has existed for more than 100 years, and the first sport clubs for the deaf were already in existence in 1888 in Berlin.

·         It was not until after World War II however, that it was widely introduced. The purpose of it at that time was to assist the large number of war veterans and civilians who had been injured during wartime.

·         In 1944, at the request of the British Government, Dr. Ludwig Guttmann opened a spinal injuries centre at the Stoke Mandeville Hospital in Great Britain, and in time, rehabilitation sport evolved to recreational sport and then to competitive sport.

·         On 29 July 1948, the day of the Opening Ceremony of the London 1948 Olympic Games, Dr. Guttmann organised the first competition for wheelchair athletes which he named the Stoke Mandeville Games, a milestone in Paralympics history. They involved 16 injured servicemen and women who took part in archery. In 1952, Dutch ex-servicemen joined the Movement and the International Stoke Mandeville Games were founded.

·         These Games later became the Paralympic Games which first took place in Rome, Italy in 1960 featuring 400 athletes from 23 countries. Since then they have taken place every four years. In 1976 the first Winter Games in Paralympics history were held in Sweden, and as with the Summer Games, have taken place every four years, and include a Paralympics Opening Ceremony and Paralympics Closing Ceremony.

·         Since the Summer Games of Seoul, Korea in 1988 and the Winter Games in Albertville, France in 1992 the Games have also taken part in the same cities and venues as the Olympics due to an agreement between the IPC and IOC.

·         Also in 1960, under the aegis of the World Federation of ex-servicemen, an International Working Group on Sport for the Disabled was set up to study the problems of sport for persons with an impairment. It resulted in the creation, in 1964, of the International Sport Organisation for the Disabled (IOSD) who offered opportunities for those athletes who could not affiliate to the International Stoke Mandeville Games: visually impaired, amputees, persons with cerebral palsy and paraplegics.

·         At the start, 16 countries were affiliated to ISOD and the organisation pushed very hard to include blind and amputee athletes into the Toronto 1976 Paralympics and athletes with cerebral palsy in 1980 in Arnhem. Its aim was to embrace all impairments in the future and to act as a Co-coordinating Committee. Nevertheless, other disability-orientated international organisations such as the Cerebral Palsy International Sports and Recreation Association (CPISRA) and International Blind Sports Federation (IBSA) were founded in 1978 and 1980.

·         The four international organisations experienced the need of coordinating the Games so they created the "International Co-coordinating Committee Sports for the Disabled in the World" (ICC) in 1982.

·         The ICC was originally composed of the four presidents of CPISRA, IBSA, ISMGF and ISOD, the general secretaries and one additional member (in the beginning it was the Vice-President, and later on the Technical Officer). The International Committee of Sport for the Deaf (CISS) and International Sports Federations for Persons with an Intellectual Disability (INAS-FID) joined in 1986, but the deaf still maintained their own organisation. However, the member nations demanded more national and regional representation in the organisation.

·         Finally, on 22 September 1989, the International Paralympic Committee was founded as an international non-profit organisation in Dusseldorf, Germany to act as the global governing body of the Paralympic Movement.

·         The word “Paralympic” derives from the Greek preposition “para” (beside or alongside) and the word “Olympic”. Its meaning is that Paralympics are the parallel Games to the Olympics and illustrates how the two movements exist side-by-side.

VISION

·         The vision of the IPC, run by 200 members, is ‘To enable Para athletes to achieve sporting excellence and inspire and excite the world.’

·         Enable - Creating conditions for athlete empowerment

·         Para athletes - The primary focus, from initiation to elite level

·         Achieve - Sporting excellence is the goal of a sport centred organisation

·         Inspire and excite - Touch the heart of all people for a more equitable society

MISSION

·         To make for a more inclusive society for people with an impairment through Para sport.

PARALYMPIC VALUES

·         Courage

Para athletes through their performances showcase to the world what can be achieved when testing your body to its absolute limits.

·         Determination

Para athletes have a unique strength of character that combines mental toughness, physical ability and outstanding agility to produce sporting performances that regularly redefine the boundaries of possibility.

·         Inspiration

As role models, Para athletes maximise their abilities, thus empowering and exciting others to participate in sport.

·         Equality

Through sport Para athletes challenge stereotypes and transform attitudes, helping to increase inclusion by breaking down social barriers and discrimination towards people with an impairment.

ANTI-DOPING COMMITTEE

·         Established to consult and advise the IPC on issues related to the fight against doping throughout the Paralympic Movement.

·         Membership: The Anti-doping Committee shall normally be comprised of six members, including the Chairperson and five members at large. The Committee meets at least once a year.

·         Function: To assist with the establishment of policies, guidelines and procedures with respect to the fight against doping, including results management and compliance with internationally accepted regulations, including the World Anti-doping Code.

·         Status: The Anti-doping Committee was established in 2004 and was previously a Subcommittee of the Medical Committee.

VARIOUS COMMITTEES ASSOCIATED WITH PARALYMPICS

·         Audit and Finance Committee

·         Athletes with High Support Needs Committee

·         Classification Committee

·         Development Committee

·         Education Committee

·         Legal and Ethics Committee

·         Paralympic Games Committee

·         Sports Science Committee

·         Medical Committee

·         Women in sport Committee

·         Sports Technical Committees

COMMONWEALTH GAMES FEDERATION

             INTRODUCTION

·         The Commonwealth Games Federation (CGF) is the organisation responsible for the direction and control of the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games, and for delivering on the vision of the Commonwealth Sports Movement: to build peaceful, sustainable and prosperous communities globally by inspiring Commonwealth Athletes to drive the impact and ambition of all Commonwealth Citizens through Sport.

·         It is an organisation headquartered and incorporated in the UK, but working across 71 member nations and territories.

·         The CGF is based at Commonwealth House on London's Pall Mall alongside, and working closely with, colleagues from the Commonwealth Secretariat, the Royal Commonwealth Society and the Commonwealth Local Government Forum.

·         President - Dame Louise Martin DBE

HISTORY

·         A sporting competition bringing together the members of the British Empire was first proposed by John Astley Cooper in 1891

·         In 1911, the Festival of the Empire was held at The Crystal Palace in London to celebrate the coronation of George V.

·         As part of the Festival of the Empire, an Inter-Empire Championships was held in which teams from Australasia, Canada, South Africa, and the United Kingdom competed in athletics, boxing, wrestling and swimming events.

·         The evolution of CWG took place in terms of following phases:

British Empire Games

British Empire and Common Wealth Games

British Common Wealth Games

Common Wealth Games

·         Currently CWG is an international multi-sport event organized by the CWG Federation after a gap of 4 years. It aims to promote sports and healthy relations at a global platform.

CGF EXECUTIVE BOARD

·         The Commonwealth Games Federation Executive Board is elected by the member 70 nations and territories at the CGF General Assembly.

·         It is a voluntary group of Commonwealth sports leaders committed to driving and upholding the vision, mission, values and responsibilities of the Commonwealth Sports Movement.

·         The CGF President, elected in September 2015, is Dame Louise Martin DBE - the first female to hold this office in the history of the movement.

·         A number of board sub-committees support the work and mission of the organisation and Executive Board.

MISSION

·         To be an athlete-centred, sport-focused Commonwealth Sports Movement, with integrity, global impact and embraced by communities that accomplishes the following:

·         Deliver inspirational and innovative Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games, built on friendships and proud heritage, supported by a dynamic Commonwealth Sports Cities Network;

·         Nurture and develop one of the best governed and well-managed sports movements in the world;

·         Attract and build on public, private and social partnerships that widely benefit Commonwealth athletes, sports and communities;

·         Champion, through our brand, Commonwealth athlete, citizen and community engagement in everything we do.

VALUES

·         Humanity

Embrace all Commonwealth athletes, citizens, communities and nations.

·         Equality

Promote fairness, non-discrimination and inclusion in all that we do.

·         Destiny

Through impactful, high-performance sport, help Commonwealth athletes, citizens and communities realise their aspirations and ambitions.

PLAN

·         The Commonwealth Sports Movement's Strategic Plan 2015-2022 was unanimously approved by all 71 nations and territories at the Commonwealth Games Federation's General Assembly in September 2015. The strategic plan is titled ‘Transformation 2022’ and is segmented into four priority areas that aim to transform the Movement’s predominate focus on hosting the Commonwealth Games to a wider vision to be realised by 2022 that is based on partnership, engagement and value generation.

CODE OF CONDUCT

·         Selflessness

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs, and Executive Board Members shall take decisions solely in the Federation's interest. They shall not do so in order to gain benefits for themselves or their sport.

·         Integrity

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members shall not place themselves under any financial or other obligation to individuals or organisations which might influence them in the performance of their duties.

·         Objectivity

In carrying out the business of the Federation including appointing or electing officials, awarding contracts or recommending individuals for rewards or benefits, the Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members shall make choices on merit.

·         Accountability

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members are accountable for their decisions and actions to the Federation and shall submit themselves to whatever scrutiny is appropriate. The Executive Board Members and members of elected committees shall report regularly to and communicate with the Affiliated CGAs which elected them. Communication shall not be confined to meetings held during Annual General Assemblies of the Federation.

·         Openness

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members shall be as open as possible about all the decisions and actions that they take. They shall give reasons for their decisions and restrict information only when the wider interest clearly demands it.

·         Honesty

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members have a duty to declare any private interests relating to their duties and to take all steps to resolve any conflicts arising in a way that protects the interest of the Federation and sport in general.

·         Non Discrimination

The Federation, Affiliated CGAs and Executive Board Members shall not discriminate against any country or person on any grounds whatsoever including race, colour, gender, religion or politics and shall adhere to the Gleneagles Declaration.

ASIAN GAMES FEDERATION

            INTRODUCTION

·         The Asian Games Federation (AGF) was the governing body of sports in Asia from 1949 to 1982. The federation was disbanded on 16 November 1982 in New Delhi and replaced by the Olympic Council of Asia. The AGF was responsible for the organisation of the Asian Games from 1951 to 1982. The Federation was established on 13 February 1949, in a meeting held in Patiala House in New Delhi.

·         The inaugural Asian Games took place in New Delhi, India, in 1951 with 11 countries competing in six sports.

·         The latest edition was played in 2018 in Jakarta-Palembang whereas the next one will take place in 2022 in Hangzhou.

HISTORY

·         In March 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, who later became the first prime minister of India, held the Asian Relations Conference in New Delhi—a meeting with a prospect to bring the possibility of Asian Games under the attention of participating countries. 

·         Before the conference, Guru Dutt Sondhi, who was the member of the International Olympic Committee for India, encouraged Yadavindra Singh, Maharaja of Patiala and the then-president of the Indian Olympic Association (IOA), to communicate with meeting attendees to establish the Asian Games Federation. The proposal was not acknowledged by some representatives and the rest, who approved, refused to make any commitment.

·         In July 1947, the IOA, which initially was advocating the organisation of Games, retracted its patronage for unknown reasons. Sondhi found an alternative; rather than organising a multi-sport event, for which he needed an approval of the IOA, he opted for a single event championship titled the Asian Athletic Championships—a track and field event. Sondhi, who was also the president of the Amateur Athletic Federation of India (AAFI) (now Athletics Federation of India), received the consent of federation in February 1948.

·         Yadavindra, on the request of Sondhi, became the president of the organising committee for the Championship, and Sondhi took the position of chairman. In early July, formal invitations were sent to various Asian countries, backed by the letter from the AAFI. But the response was not positive as there was a scheduling conflict with the 1948 Summer Olympics, which were scheduled from 29 July.

·         During the 1948 Olympic Games, Sondhi held a meeting on 8 August 1948, at Mount Royal Hotel in London. Invitations were sent to all the Asian National Olympic Committees present in London at that time. Chief Managers of Korea, China, Philippines, Singapore, Burma, Ceylon, India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and Syria were called for the meeting, but only representatives from Burma, Ceylon, China, India, Philippines, and Korea attended.

·         Sondhi made two proposals: first, to organise an Asian Athletic Championship in February 1949 in New Delhi, and second, to establish the Asian Games Federation, based on the IOC model. Founder of the Philippine Amateur Athletic Federation and first Filipino member of the International Olympic Committee Jorge B. Vargas stoutly backed the second proposal, and the first proposal was accepted by the attendees with an amendment.

·         For the further development of the federation, a decision was made to conduct a meeting during the Championship in New Delhi in February 1949, and a sub-committee, consisting representatives from four nations, was appointed to draft the constitution and ordinances of the federation.

·         The Asian Athletics Championship was not realised due to "unsettled conditions" and economic difficulties of participating nations, but a meeting was organised at the Patiala House, in Delhi, among the representatives of nine Asian nations, on 12 and 13 February 1949. The meeting was attended by the representatives of Afghanistan, Burma, Ceylon, India, Indonesia, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines and Thailand. The drafted constitution, presented by the sub-committee, was again revised as per the Olympic Charter—the constitution of the International Olympic Committee—and accredited.

·         To avoid the ambiguity generated by the literal meaning of term "athletic", sub-committee rectified the primitively proposed title of the federation from Asian Amateur Athletic Federation to Asian Games Federation. Afghanistan, Burma, India, Pakistan, and the Philippines became the first five members of the Asian Games Federation after signing the constitution in its full term; the other four attendees also signed it, but it still needed the ratification by their governments or their National Sports Associations. The federation elected Yadavindra Singh as the president, Jorge B. Vargas as vice-president, and G. D. Sondhi as secretary treasurer.

PRINCIPALS

·         To develop sport, culture and education of Asian youth, those moral and physical qualities that come from fair competition in sports, and to promote international respect, friendship, goodwill, Peace and Clean Environments.

·         The OCA or any of its members shall not discriminate in any way against any other member. No employee, representative, official or competitor of a member shall, on the ground of colour, disability, religion or politics, be subjected to any vexation. There shall be no restrictions or conditions in this regard for the entry and participation in the Asian Games or attendance in any meeting of the OCA and its Committees.

·         No member or its duly accredited representative, official or competitor shall be denied access to the city where the Asian Games are or the meeting is for the time being held. Willful transgression or evasion of this principle will be treated as a fundamental breach and dealt with appropriately by the OCA.

·         The OCA will apply and uphold the Olympic principles as defined in the Olympic Charter; belonging to the OCA Movement requires strict compliance with the OCA Constitution, Rules and Guidelines.

OBJECTIVES

The OCA shall:

·         Be the sole organisation in overall charge of different OCA GAMES in Asia;

·         Be the representative authority with all other recognised bodies or authorities responsible for Olympic, Asian, Continental, International and World Games;

·         Co-ordinate the activities of Asian countries in the field of sports at both regional and international levels;

·         Promote the practice of sport, encourage the construction of physical facilities and improve the standard of performance in the spirit of fair play within its member’s respective jurisdictions;

·         Encourage the holding of Asian Championships and competitions in all approved sports under its members respective jurisdictions;

·         Stimulate interest of sport and physical recreation in the people of Asia;

·         Co-operate with public authorities and private enterprises in the promotion of sport without prejudice to the principles of the Olympic Movement;

·         Ensure that its membership is fully representative of the duly recognised NOCs of Asia as far as practically possible;

·         Guide, influence and lead all sports along the right lines in Asian countries;

·         Take disciplinary action against any member or its employees, representatives, officials and competitors for misbehaviour or any other undesirable activity which brings discredit to the OCA;

·         Be responsible for promotion and development of the Olympic Movement and its noble ideals among Asian people;

·         Be responsible to solve, as the supreme Asian Sports Organisation, sporting problems that may arise within Asian countries, among members or between them and others as far as practically possible;

·         Do all things necessary to fulfil the principles and objectives of the OCA;

·         Act against any form of discriminations affecting the Olympic Movement in Asia;

·         Oppose any political or commercial abuse of sport and athletes;

·         Encourage and support the effort of sport organisations and public authorities to provide for the social, professional future and health of athletes;

·         Encourage and support the promotion of the crucial topics (i.e. Women and Sport at all levels, Sport for All, Environment issues, Sport with Culture and Education and Peace through Sports)

·         Encourage and support the activities of the Asian Olympic Academy and other institutions which dedicate themselves to Olympic education;

·         Fight against doping and all sorts of prohibited substances, by adopting a pro-active approach and implementing the World Anti-Doping Code.

·         Assist, guide, encourage and provide necessary assistance, administrative or financial, wherever possible, to the Olympic Movement in Asia (as envisaged in the preamble of the OCA Constitution) to promote sports at grass root levels.

NATIONAL GAMES

            INTRODUCTION

·         The National Games of India comprises various disciplines in which sportsmen from the different states of India participate against each other. The country's first few Olympic Games, now renamed as National Games, were held in North India (Delhi, Lahore, Allahabad, Patiala), Madras, Calcutta, and Bombay.

HISTORY

·         The National Games were earlier called the Indian Olympic Games.

·         In the early 1920s, the Indian chapter of the Olympic movement was born, and India participated in the 1920 Antwerp Olympics.  As part of this movement, a provisional Indian Olympic Association (IOA) came about by 1924, and the Indian Olympic Games were held in Feb 1924 in Delhi to select Indian competitors for the 1924 Paris Olympics.

·         The games were then held every two years, and were renamed as National Games during the 9th Games in Bombay in 1940. The Indian Olympic Association, the sports organising body of the nation, mooted the concept of the National Games to promote the development of sports and of the Olympic movement in India, and was responsible for host city selection.

·         Each games was organised by the host city sports association, and each had its unique challenges. For example, in late 1949, the Bengal Provincial Olympic Association, whose turn it was to hold the next national games, could not do so, and the IOA President Maharaja of Patiala then asked Bombay to host the games; it had just three months to organise the event. Bombay government ministers and Bombay olympic association officials then worked to hold the 1950 National Games in Bombay in early February 1950.

·         While held at various cities, the organisation of each national games was roughly similar, with an overarching 'Jury of Honour and Appeal' comprising the main officials for the games; and other officials such as a General Manager and Managers; Referee; Official Surveyor; Judges; Starters; Clerks of the Course; Recorders; Announcers; Scorers; Marshals; and Photographers.

IN RECENT TIMES

·         For several years in the mid-twentieth century, the national games were conducted on a low key note. However, the first Modern National Games on the lines of the Olympics were held in 1985 in New Delhi. Thereafter Kerala (1987), Pune-Maharashtra (1994), Bangalore-Karnataka (1997), Manipur (1999), Ludhiana-Punjab (2001), Hyderabad-Andhra Pradesh (2002), Guwahati-Assam (2007), Ranchi-Jharkhand (2011), and Kerala (2015) hosted the Games. Like the early games, the modern games had their challenges: for example, a decision on the sixth modern National Games in Ludhiana-Punjab was delayed because the Central Government diverted funding for the first Afro-Asian Games.

·         The National Games were normally to be held every two years, leaving those years in which the Olympic Games and Asian Games are scheduled. In exceptional cases or natural calamity, the Indian Olympic Association (IOA) can relax the general rule. In practice, the games were often held at three to four year intervals in the 1990s, 2000s, and 2010s.

PERFORMANCE OF HOME STATES

·         In recent times, the host states of National Games have consistently featured in the top 5 in the overall medal tally. Kerala had become the Champions when it hosted the event in 1987.

·         The 1997 National Games was hosted by Karnataka and they won the largest number of medals. Manipur which had finished 9th in the 1997 National Games, became the overall champions when they hosted the event two years later. In 2001, hosts Punjab became the champions.

·         Andhra Pradesh which had won only 11 Gold Medals in 2001 went on to become the Champions when they hosted it in 2002 winning a whopping 94 Gold Medals overall. Assam had managed to win only a single gold medal and had finished 21st position in 2001.

·         But, in the subsequent 2007 National Games that they hosted, they were the second runners-up winning a total of 38 Gold Medals. In 2011, Assam finished 15th overall winning only 5 Gold Medals. Jharkhand had been in the 15th position in 2007 National Games. They rose to the 5th position when they hosted it in 2011.

·         In 2015, hosts Kerala secured the second spot in the medal tally. One main reason for this trend is the higher number of participants from the host state and comparatively lesser number of participants from other states.

FUTURE GAMES

·         Though National Games are supposed to be held once in 2 years, it is faltering on this schedule. It took Guwahati five years to conduct the games after the National Games in 2002 are organised in Andhra Pradesh.

·         The 34th National Games had been postponed six times before finally opening on February 12, 2011.  The 35th National Games were to be held at Trivandrum in 2012, it was then announced that it would be held from 31 January to February 14, 2015.

·         The 36th National Games were to be held at Goa as announced at the closing ceremony of 35th National Games in Trivandrum, Goa contingent said the games would be held in November 2016, then it was postponed to Nov 2017 , however Goa has now declared it inability to host the games altogether .

·         Uttarakhand will host the 37th National Games.  As many as 32 sporting events will be held in the cities of Dehradun, Haldwani and Tehri. The 38th National Games will be held after that in January 2019 in Amaravati, Andhra Pradesh.

GREENING THE NATIONAL GAMES

·         The 2015 National Games organised in Trivandrum was associated with green protocols. This was initiated by Suchitwa Mission that aimed for "zero-waste" venues. Waste Management programmes were implemented at the 29 venues. To make the event "disposable-free", there was ban on the usage of disposable water bottles.

·         The event witnessed the usage of reusable tableware and stainless steel tumblers. Athletes were provided with refillable steel flasks. It is estimated that these green practices stopped the generation of 120 metric tonnes of disposable waste. Suchitwa Mission requested the help of volunteers to achieve the green objectives, and the service of these 700 volunteers to achieve the green objectives were applauded by the Chief Minister.